by Norton Tooby

     The fourth edition of CRIMINAL DEFENSE OF IMMIGRANTS was published on June 15, 2007 and is updated monthly on this page.

Summary Table of Contents Click the sections listed below to view recent case law pertinent to each section respectively. See the Detailed Table of Contents (pdf) to view all section headings for this book.

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Chapter 1 : Introduction

§ 1.1	I. Introduction
§ 1.2	A. The Problem

Chapter 2 : Three Reasons to Protect Our Clients’ Immigration Status

§ 2.3	3. Summary
§ 2.22	IV. It is Part of Our Job as Criminal Lawyers, and It is In Our Interest to Do a Good Job
§ 2.28	C. Courts Expect Us To Do It

Chapter 3 : Investigation

§ 3.*	.
§ 3.13	2. Screening for U.S. Citizenship
§ 3.14	a. Born in the United States
§ 3.15	b. Born to U.S. Citizen Parent(s) Abroad (Acquired Citizenship)
§ 3.17	d. Child of Naturalized Citizen (Derivative Citizenship)
§ 3.18	e. Nationals of the United States
§ 3.19	f. American Indians Born in Canada
§ 3.20	g. Denaturalization
§ 3.29	8. Obtaining Information About the Client�s Culture
§ 3.31	III. Obtaining Immigration Records
§ 3.32	A. FOIA Requests
§ 3.34	IV. Obtaining Criminal Records
§ 3.57	VII. Obtaining Information About Client�s Culture
§ 3.58	A. Cultural Experts
§ 3.59	B. Cultural Defenses
§ 3.63	IV. Foreign Investigations

Chapter 4 : Interpreter Issues

§ 4.1	I. Introduction
§ 4.3	A. In General
§ 4.16	2. Assessing the Need for an Intepreter

Chapter 5 : Strategy

§ 5.11	1. Client’s Immigration Status
§ 5.13	3. Client’s Priorities
§ 5.20	4. Evaluation of Chances of Success
§ 5.21	D. Defense of Criminal Case

Chapter 6 : Detention

§ 6.3	III. Release from Criminal Custody
§ 6.5	B. Whether to Obtain Release from Criminal Custody
§ 6.7	D. Effect of Noncitizen Status on Release Decision
§ 6.10	IV. Criminal Defense to Minimize Immigration Detention
§ 6.11	A. Immigration Holds in Criminal Cases
§ 6.13	3. Target Offenses
§ 6.15	A. 48 Hours After Criminal Release
§ 6.16	b. Habeas Corpus
§ 6.18	B. Plea Negotiations
§ 6.19	C. Criminal Custody Conditions
§ 6.20	D. Accepting Early Removal
§ 6.25	5. As Condition of Probation
§ 6.26	6. Early Release to Deportation
§ 6.27	7. Prisoner Transfer
§ 6.29	V. Arrest by Immigration Authorities
§ 6.32	B. DHS Enforcement of Criminal Arrest Warrants
§ 6.33	VII. Immigration Detention
§ 6.34	A. Importance to Immigrant Defendants
§ 6.36	C. Detention Locale
§ 6.37	D. Mandatory Detention
§ 6.38	1. Effective Date
§ 6.39	2. Direct Release Not Required
§ 6.42	5. Indefinite Detention
§ 6.43	E. Non-Mandatory Immigration Detention
§ 6.44	1. Bond
§ 6.47	G. Habeas Review
§ 6.48	R. Failure To Appear in Court
§ 6.49	A. During Pretrial Criminal Proceedings
§ 6.50	B. After Deportation
§ 6.51	C. Entry into the United States to Attend Criminal Proceedings
§ 6.52	IX. Resources

Chapter 7 : Conviction

§ 7.2	II. Overview
§ 7.10	B. Conviction Defined by Federal, Not State, Law
§ 7.11	C. Statutory Definition of Conviction
§ 7.12	1. The Statute
§ 7.13	2. Legislative History
§ 7.15	1. Formal Judgement in Criminal Case
§ 7.18	b. Plea of Guilty or No Contest
§ 7.19	c. Admission of Sufficient Facts
§ 7.20	d. Imposition of Sentence
§ 7.23	1. Juvenile Delinquency Adjudications
§ 7.24	2. Minor Non-Criminal Violations
§ 7.25	3. Foreign Convictions
§ 7.27	B. Non-Conviction Dispositions
§ 7.30	3. Deferred Prosecution
§ 7.31	4. Deferred Verdict
§ 7.32	5. Deferred Sentence
§ 7.33	C. Defective Convictions
§ 7.34	1. Convictions by Court Without Jurisdiction
§ 7.37	D. Non-Final Convictions on Direct Appeal
§ 7.38	VI. Post-Conviction Relief from Conviction
§ 7.39	VII. Resources

Chapter 8 : Plea

§ 8.8	B. Special Considerations for Noncitizens
§ 8.16	1. The Prosecutor
§ 8.34	2. Neutralizing Bias Against Noncitizens
§ 8.48	5. Other Advice to Client
§ 8.58	ii. No Contest Plea
§ 8.64	i. Record of Conviction

Chapter 9 : Litigation [Reserved]

§ 9.*

. Chapter 9

Chapter 10 : Sentence

§ 10.1	I. Introduction
§ 10.27	4. Immigration Status or Hold
§ 10.30	7. Other Arguments
§ 10.31	C. Federal Sentencing Issues
§ 10.41	B. Special Proceedings After Sentence
§ 10.46	1. Probation Violations and Convictions
§ 10.48	3. Probation Violation Sentences
§ 10.53	C. Immigration Advice
§ 10.55	A. Sentence as Part of "Record of Conviction"
§ 10.56	B. Sentence Enhancements
§ 10.57	1. Effects of Sentence Enhancements
§ 10.58	2. Recidivist Enhancements
§ 10.60	4. Other Conduct-Based Enhancements
§ 10.61	C. Finality
§ 10.63	A. "Sentence Imposed"
§ 10.65	C. Sentence Ordered by the Court
§ 10.81	B. Probation or Parole
§ 10.87	GG. Sexual Abuse of a Minor

Chapter 11 : Post-Conviction Relief

§ 11.1	I. Introduction
§ 11.4	A. General Rule
§ 11.5	B. Full Faith and Credit
§ 11.6	C. Burden of Proof
§ 11.9	IV. Effective Orders Modifying Sentence
§ 11.12	C. Reducing Sentence
§ 11.18	A.. General Rule
§ 11.19	B. Federal First Offender Act Exception
§ 11.20	C.. Ninth Circuit Exception for State and Foreign Rehabilitative Relief Analogous to FFOA
§ 11.21	D. Judicial Recommendation Against Deportation
§ 11.22	E. Pardon
§ 11.24	2. Foreign Pardons
§ 11.26	A. Finding Post-Conviction Counsel
§ 11.37	d. Timing of Post-Conviction Relief
§ 11.70	B. Grounds
§ 11.81	C. Reopening Removal Proceedings
§ 11.82	1. Before Deportation Has Occurred
§ 11.83	2. After Deportation Has Occurred

Chapter 12 : Juvenile Proceedings

§ 12.5	C. Immigration Detention
§ 12.9	G. Sentence
§ 12.11	A. Conviction
§ 12.12	1. General Rule
§ 12.13	2. Eligibility for FJDA Transfer
§ 12.18	F. Transfer from Juvenile to Adult Court under FJDA Not Possible for Conspiracy
§ 12.21	A. Conviction - Juvenile Court Adjudication Not a Conviction
§ 12.24	1. Conduct-Based Grounds
§ 12.27	4. Other Grounds
§ 12.29	1. Conduct-Based Grounds
§ 12.32	a. Admission by Minor Ineffective
§ 12.36	6. Other Grounds
§ 12.37	E. Relief

Chapter 13 : Immigration Offenses [Reserved]

§ 13.*

. Chapter 13

Chapter 14 : Special Proceedings [Reserved]

§ 14.*

. Chapter 14

Chapter 15 : Overview of Substance and Procedure

§ 15.1	I. Substantive Immigration Introduction
§ 15.3	B. Key Concepts and Terminology
§ 15.6	E. Good Moral Character
§ 15.7	F. What Law Controls
§ 15.9	A. Summary for Criminal Defense Attorneys
§ 15.11	C. Initial Contacts with Immigration Authorities
§ 15.12	1. Consular Processing
§ 15.13	2. At Ports of Entry
§ 15.14	a. Parole
§ 15.15	b. Deferred Inspection
§ 15.19	5. Illegal Crossings, Raids and Special Operations
§ 15.20	6. Prosecutorial Discretion
§ 15.21	D. Detention and Bond
§ 15.22	E. Expedited Removal, Special Removal
§ 15.23	F. Immigration Court Proceedings
§ 15.24	3. Notice to Appear
§ 15.25	2. Master, Individual and In Absentia Hearings
§ 15.26	3. Burdens of Proof, Categorical Analysis,
§ 15.27	4. Finding Removability
§ 15.28	5. Application for Relief
§ 15.29	6. Voluntary Departure
§ 15.30	a. Before Removal Proceedings Begin
§ 15.31	b. During Removal Proceedings
§ 15.33	d. After Removal Proceedings
§ 15.34	7. Motions to Reopen or Reconsider
§ 15.35	G. Appeal to Board of Immigration Appeals
§ 15.36	H. Appeal to Federal Courts
§ 15.37	I. Judicial Review
§ 15.38	J. After Conviction Has Been Vacated
§ 15.39	K. Illegal Re-Entry
§ 15.40	L. Reinstatement of Removal
§ 15.44	C. Accompanied v. Unaccompanied Minors
§ 15.45	D. Detention and Bond
§ 15.47	F. Relief

Chapter 16 : Nature of the Conviction

§ 16.3	III. Categorical Analysis
§ 16.4	A. Essential Elements of the Offense
§ 16.5	1. Statutory Elements
§ 16.6	2. Elements As Defined by Judicial
§ 16.7	3. Resisting Exceptions to Categorical
§ 16.8	B. Minimum Conduct Necessary to Violate the
§ 16.9	IV. Divisible Statutes
§ 16.10	A. Divisibility Analysis � When Does It Apply?
§ 16.11	1. Discrete Subsections
§ 16.12	2. Disjunctive Statutes
§ 16.13	3. Target Offenses
§ 16.14	B. Divisibility Analysis � When It Does Not Apply
§ 16.15	V. Record of Conviction
§ 16.16	A. Existence vs. Nature of Conviction
§ 16.17	B. Limitation to Record of Conviction
§ 16.18	C. Elements vs. Facts
§ 16.19	1. Rationale for Ignoring the Facts
§ 16.20	2. Application
§ 16.21	3. Foreign Offenses
§ 16.22	D. Documents Included
§ 16.23	1. Charging Papers
§ 16.24	2. Factual Basis and Admissions
§ 16.25	25. Judgement
§ 16.27	5. Plea and Plea Agreement
§ 16.28	6. Other Documents Included
§ 16.30	1. Dismissed Counts
§ 16.31	2. Police Reports
§ 16.32	3. Probation and Presentence Reports
§ 16.33	4. Other Documents Excluded
§ 16.35	A. Effects of State Law
§ 16.36	B. Related toâ€� Language
§ 16.38	D. All Reasonable Doubts Favor the Noncitizen

Chapter 17 : Deportability

§ 17.5	C. Admission to the United States
§ 17.6	1. Returning LPRs Seeking Admission
§ 17.7	D. Conduct-Based Immigration Consequences
§ 17.8	3. Date of Admission
§ 17.9	D. Burdens of Proof
§ 17.10	E. Eligibility for Relief
§ 17.11	F. Relevant Non-Crime Related Grounds
§ 17.30	E. Other Crime-Related Grounds

Chapter 18 : Inadmissibility

§ 18.4	B. Who is Subject to Grounds of Inadmissibility
§ 18.5	1. Lawful Permanent Residents
§ 18.7	1. Returning Lawful Permanent Residents
§ 18.8	D. Admissions of Criminal Conduct
§ 18.9	E. Eligibility for Relief
§ 18.10	F. Relevant Non-Crime Related Grounds of Inadmissibility
§ 18.19	a. Admission of Commission of a Controlled Substances Offense
§ 18.23	4. Money Laundering
§ 18.24	5. Prostitution and Commercialized Vice
§ 18.25	6. Alien Smuggling or Trafficking
§ 18.26	7. Terrorism and Security-Related Grounds
§ 18.27	8. Other Crime Related Grounds

Chapter 19 : Aggravated Felonies

§ 19.2	II. Standards for Defining Aggravated Felonies
§ 19.3	A. Elements of the Deportation Ground
§ 19.5	1. State Criminal Case Law � Applicability
§ 19.6	3. Parentheticals and “Related To” Language
§ 19.8	1. Reference to Federal Criminal Law
§ 19.9	2. General or Common Law Definitions
§ 19.10	D. Sentence Requirements
§ 19.12	F. Foreign Conviction Date Requirement
§ 19.13	G. Non-Substantive Offenses
§ 19.14	1. Attempt and Conspiracy
§ 19.15	2. Accessory After the Fact
§ 19.16	3. Aiding and Abetting
§ 19.18	5. Misprision of a Felony
§ 19.19	6. Solicitation
§ 19.21	H. Effective Date Analysis
§ 19.22	I. Immigration vs. Sentencing Contexts
§ 19.25	B. Alien Smuggling
§ 19.27	D. Attempt
§ 19.30	G. Burglary
§ 19.31	H. Child Pornography
§ 19.32	I. Conspiracy
§ 19.33	J. Counterfeiting
§ 19.34	K. Crimes of Violence
§ 19.35	1. Statutory Definition Under
§ 19.36	a. Element of Force
§ 19.37	b. Use, Threat, or Attempt
§ 19.38	c. Violent Physical Force
§ 19.39	d. Against Person or Property of Another
§ 19.40	e. Intent Element
§ 19.42	a. Felony Conviction
§ 19.43	b. By its Nature
§ 19.44	c. Involves a Substantial Risk
§ 19.45	d. Violent Physical Force
§ 19.46	e.. Against Person or Property of Another
§ 19.49	h. Intent Element
§ 19.50	3. Political Offense Exception
§ 19.51	4. Specific Crimes
§ 19.54	N. Document Fraud
§ 19.55	O. Drug Trafficking
§ 19.56	1. Elements of Both Prongs
§ 19.58	a. Simple Possession
§ 19.59	b. Other Cases
§ 19.60	3. Listed Controlled Substance
§ 19.61	4. Commercial Element
§ 19.62	5. Federal Offense Analogue
§ 19.63	6. Other Safer Offenses
§ 19.65	Q. Failure To Appear in Court
§ 19.66	1. To Face Charges
§ 19.70	2. Other Firearms Offenses
§ 19.71	S. Forgery
§ 19.72	T. Fraud
§ 19.73	1. Nature of the Offense
§ 19.74	2. Loss to the Victim(s)
§ 19.76	V. Kidnapping
§ 19.77	W. Money Laundering
§ 19.80	Z. Obstruction of Justice
§ 19.82	BB. Prostitution
§ 19.83	CC. Rape
§ 19.87	GG. Sexual Abuse of a Minor
§ 19.89	2. Abuse Element
§ 19.90	3. Proof of Age
§ 19.91	4. As a Crime of Violence
§ 19.92	HH. Statutory Rape
§ 19.93	II. Tax Evasion
§ 19.94	JJ. Theft
§ 19.98	B. Eligibility for Relief

Chapter 20 : Crimes of Moral Turpitude

§ 20.1	I. Summary for Criminal Defense Attorneys
§ 20.2	II. General Definition
§ 20.5	a. Intent to Steal
§ 20.6	b. Fraudulent Intent
§ 20.7	c. Intent to Inflict Bodily Harm
§ 20.8	d. Lewd Intent
§ 20.10	a. Strict Liability (i.e. No Criminal Intent)
§ 20.11	b. General Intent (to Commit an Act)
§ 20.13	d. Negligence
§ 20.14	e. Gross Negligence
§ 20.15	f. Recklessness
§ 20.17	h. Willfulness or Knowledge
§ 20.19	B. Requirement of “Crime”
§ 20.20	C. Gravity of Offense or Sentence
§ 20.22	E. Regulatory Offenses
§ 20.23	F. Target Offenses
§ 20.24	G. Non-Substantive Offenses
§ 20.27	1. Conviction
§ 20.28	2. Admission
§ 20.29	B. The Petty Offense Exception
§ 20.30	D. The Political Offense Exception
§ 20.31	D. The Political Offense Exception
§ 20.33	J. Counterfeiting
§ 20.37	C. Date of Commission
§ 20.38	c. Violent Physical Force
§ 20.39	A. Elements of the Deportation Ground
§ 20.40	B. Single Scheme Exception

Chapter 21 : Controlled Substances

§ 21.4	1. Controlled Substances Conviction
§ 21.6	3. Reason to Believe� Drug Trafficker
§ 21.10	7. Drug Abuse or Addiction
§ 21.13	3. Controlled Substances Conviction
§ 21.15	4. Drug Abuse or Addiction
§ 21.16	C. Eligibility for Relief
§ 21.17	III. Simple Possession and Lesser Offenses
§ 21.20	C. Subsequent Possession Offense
§ 21.21	D. Under the Influence
§ 21.22	E. Possession of Paraphernalia
§ 21.29	E. Other Controlled Substances Offenses
§ 21.32	B. Unlisted Offenses
§ 21.33	C. Offense is Not “Relating to” a Controlled Substance
§ 21.34	D. Drug is Not a Federally Listed Controlled Substance
§ 21.35	E. Personal Possession of 30 Grams or Less of Marijuana
§ 21.36	F. Effective Rehabilitative Relief
§ 21.37	G. Other Safe Havens
§ 21.39	A. Felony/Misdemeanor Definitions

Chapter 22 : Domestic Violence

§ 22.3	III. Criminal Defense of Domestic Violence Cases
§ 22.7	C. Immigration Relief
§ 22.9	V. Domestic Violence Conviction Deportation Ground
§ 22.15	5. Effective Date
§ 22.25	a. Crime of Violence
§ 22.26	b. Protected Relationship
§ 22.28	D. Import or Export
§ 22.29	a. Stalking
§ 22.30	b. Child Abuse
§ 22.31	c. Child Neglect
§ 22.32	d. Child Abandonment
§ 22.33	VI. Court Finding of Protection Order Violation
§ 22.39	F. Violation of Wrong Portion of TRO

Chapter 23 : Firearms

§ 23.1	I. Summary for Criminal Defense Attorneys
§ 23.3	III. Cancellation of Removal
§ 23.6	D. Noncitizen In Possession of a Firearm
§ 23.13	VIII. Naturalization and Citizenship
§ 23.15	3. Sporting or Cultural Use Exception

Chapter 24 : Immigration Relief

§ 24.1	I. Summary for Criminal Defense Attorneys
§ 24.2	II. Adjustment of Status
§ 24.3	III. Cancellation of Removal
§ 24.4	A. For Lawful Permanent Residents
§ 24.5	B. For Non-Lawful Permanent Residents
§ 24.6	C. Continuous Presence and the Stop-Time Rule
§ 24.7	IV. Convention Against Torture
§ 24.9	VI. Legalization
§ 24.10	A. Amnesty Program
§ 24.12	VII. NACARA Relief
§ 24.13	VIII. Naturalization and Citizenship
§ 24.14	IX. Non-Immigrant Visas
§ 24.15	A. "S" Visa for witnesses and informants
§ 24.17	C. Uâ€� Visa for Crime Victims and Witnesses
§ 24.18	X.. Political Asylum
§ 24.19	A. Criminal Bars to Asylum
§ 24.20	B. Offenses Committed After Grant (209(c) Waiver
§ 24.21	C. American Baptist Church (ABC) Settlement
§ 24.22	XI. Private Bill in Congress
§ 24.24	XIII. Suspension of Deportation
§ 24.25	XIV. Temporary Protected Status (TPS)
§ 24.26	XV. Violence Against Women Act (VAWA)
§ 24.27	XVI. Voluntary Departure
§ 24.28	XVII. Waiver Under Former INA 212(c)
§ 24.29	XVIII. Waiver of Inadmissibility Under INA 212(h)
§ 24.30	XIX. Waivers - Other Waivers
§ 24.31	XX. Withholding of Removal

Appendices

Appendix A: Basic Immigration Status Questionnaire

Appendix B: Aggravated Felony Alphabetical Quick Checklist

Appendix C: Checklist of Federal Drug Offenses

Appendix D: Checklist of Grounds of Deportation

Appendix E: Checklist of Crime-Related Grounds of Inadmissibility

Appendix F: Post-Conviction Case Evaluation Checklist

Appendix G: Non-Substantive Offenses